Author: DEVESH RAJ, LL.M. in Maritime Law
Rashtriya Raksha University, Gandhinagar Gujarat
To the Point
Floating nuclear power plants are an emerging technology that could provide an alternative source of sustainable generation of energy, mainly in remote and coastal areas of the oceans. In addition, the deployment of floating nuclear power plants in marine environments presents a sustainable and low-cost source of energy, but it comes with environmental risks that must be taken with great care. This article in study the environmental risks encompassing Floating Nuclear power Plants such as leakage of radiation, thermal pollution, and ecological disturbance.
Use of legal jargon
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Maritime zone extending up to 200 nautical miles from a country’s coast, where the state has rights for resource exploration.
Flag State Jurisdiction: Legal authority of a state over vessels registered under its flag.
Ultra Vires Acts: Actions undertaken beyond the legal powers or authority granted.
State Responsibility: Customary international law principle holding states liable for wrongful acts.
Strict Liability: Legal doctrine where fault is irrelevant; liability is imposed solely based on causation.
The Proof
Case of Akademik Lomonosov (Russia): The world’s first FNPP with a 70 MW capacity supplying power to Arctic regions. It demonstrates technical viability but raises concerns over environmental safety protocols and transboundary harm.
India’s SMR Plan: India aims to develop SMRs (Small Modular Reactors) for floating deployment with foreign collaboration (e.g., Russia). The government has committed Rs 1 lakh crore towards nuclear R&D to reduce carbon footprint.
Environmental Impacts: FNPPs discharge heated coolant water into the sea, causing thermal gradients that disturb coral reefs, spawning grounds, and oxygen levels, particularly in enclosed coastal waters.
International Legal Framework Gaps: Neither the IAEA Safety Standards nor UNCLOS currently provides exhaustive provisions tailored to FNPPs’ operational realities, especially concerning jurisdiction and accident compensation.
Abstract
What is floating nuclear power plants?
Floating nuclear power plants work similarly to land-based nuclear power plants. They generate power by using nuclear reactions to produce heat, which then converts water into steam to spin turbines and create electricity. The key difference is that these reactors are housed on large barges or ships, allowing them to be stationed offshore. They are often anchored near shorelines to supply power to coastal regions, industrial zones, or islands where electricity supply is limited.
It is promoted as a solution to energy shortages in hard-to-reach places. By using nuclear power, they do not produce greenhouse gases during function so making them a cleaner energy option compared to fossil fuels. Akademik Lomonosov which is situated in Russia operates off the coast of northern Siberia is the world’s first floating nuclear power plant. This floating nuclear power plants provides power to remote Arctic communities and industries, setting a example for future projects.These plants built on offshore platforms which provide a energy solution for remote, coastal, and energy-deficient, Designed to be portable and safely decommissioned, Floating nuclear Power plants can deliver continuous energy to areas where traditional power sources may not be available.
The Indian government is planning to grow Floating nuclear power plants energy sector by working with private corporations to build small modular reactors (SMRs) with technology help from countries like Russia. To support this Present Indian Government aims to invest Rs 1 lakh crore in nuclear research and development with the goal of increasing electricity production from nuclear sources.
Russia & China are currently the only nation of the world with working floating nuclear power plants, like Russia’s Lomonosov (300 MW) and China’s HTR-PM (210 MW). Other countries, including the U.S., Argentina & South Korea, are working on similar reactor with the U.S. expecting one to be completed by 2035.India’s planned SMR will be efficient, lower in cost, and could supply power to remote or coastal areas. This would benefit places like the Andaman Islands, where the Indian Army currently uses generators for electricity. The design of India’s SMR will take inspiration from Russian reactors that use several smaller reactors together.
Floating nuclear power plants generate the electricity with the aid of nuclear fission this is a process in where uranium or plutonium atoms are fragmented and releasing heat. This heat turns water into steam, which powers turbines connected to generators, create electricity. The electricity is then delivered to homes and businesses via power lines. India’s current energy sources are hydropower, solar, and wind which are expensive and add to carbon emissions, that is harmful for nuclear energy, however, is cleaner and can generate a lot of electricity from a small amount of uranium, which only needs to be refueled every 30 years.
The Indian government finds many advantages to nuclear power with lower carbon emissions and the capability to meet rising electricity demands. The SMRs can be built and installed quickly, even on ships or large vehicles, reducing land use and infrastructure needs. With electricity demand expected to rise 80–150% by 2050.
Key impacts on Marine Ecology
Radiation Leakage and Contamination of oceans and Coastal areas.
Although nuclear plants are generally low-risk source to generate energy but radiation leaks could have catastrophic consequences for marine life. Floating Nuclear power plants are subject to dynamic marine environments that increase risks due to extreme weather conditions such as cyclone or tsunamis, which could damage containment structures of the power plants and result in radiation exposure. These kinds of severe environmental harm affecting fisheries, heath of human living in coastal areas, marine life and biodiversity throughout regional ecosystems could result from contamination.
Marine species at the top of the food chain such as large fish, whales, and seabirds, are particularly at risk because they can accumulate radioactive materials from contaminated organisms lower in the food chain. This process, known as bioaccumulation which means that radiation exposure can intensify as it moves up the food web and potentially impacting larger animals more severely.
Thermal Pollution and Ecological Impact
Floating nuclear power plants release heated water as a by-product of cooling their reactors. This hot water is usually discharged back into the ocean which can significantly raise the temperature of the surrounding waters of the oceans. Thermal pollution can disrupt marine ecosystems by altering the natural temperature range that marine species are adapted to live. Many aquatic animals such as fish, turtles and coral etc, are sensitive to temperature changes. Increased water temperatures can reduce oxygen levels make it hard for marine life to survive.
Impact on Marine Life and Habitat Disruption
The deployment and working of the floating nuclear power plants would lead to noise pollution, light pollution and construction activities affecting marine species especially mammals and migratory fish which results in shifting their behaviour. Marine mammals use echoes to find food, mate, and navigate for migration such noise pollution can interfere with this process. Also seabed areas are disturbed during construction and maintenance which poorly affects aquatic habitats.
Risk of Marine Accidents and Oil Spills
Due to their offshore location and apparent movement in the coastal areas Floating Nuclear Power Plants cause a significant environmental risk of collision and sinking. There will be both short-term and long-term environmental effects from marine mishaps that results in release of radioactive material straight into the ocean. Safety precautions are challenging & crucial when responding to such catastrophes in isolated coastal locations with inadequate infrastructure.
Key regulatory challenges
Inconsistent International Standards and Fragmented Oversight.
Presently, international conditions are primarily influencing the standard setting for Floating nuclear power plants, however those are laid down by IAEA and UNCLOS respectively. The lack of clarity in the precise regulations of this creates a dilemma regarding safety standards. Hence different national policies are being accommodated to permitting FNPP to operate that is where the regulatory gap lies. As a consequence, coordination and enforceability across international levels will be challenging.
Jurisdictional Complexities in International Waters
Since FNPPs are typically located in international waters or EEZs therefore it is unclear where regulatory jurisdiction is located. Which results in no one appears to have clear regulatory responsibility over the operation of these Floating nuclear power plants in such international waters, this makes governance difficult. Because of this, there are no obvious authorities that will make compliance difficult or identify the parties at fault in the event of an accident or environmental harm.
Example: The South China Sea, where multiple nations have overlapping territorial claims, illustrates the difficulty in establishing clear governance in disputed waters. Similar challenges could arise with FNPPs in shared or contested waters.
Limited Liability and Compensation Frameworks
Existing liability structures for nuclear activities have mainly been designed for land-based facilities for instance the Paris and Vienna Conventions which are no way adequate for a marine-based incident. Thus, in the occasion of an FNPP accident, no one knows who is going to be held accountable or pay compensation to affected countries communities & peoples. This is bound to raise questions about potential financial costs of environmental disasters and the effectiveness of the mechanisms of compensation.
Inadequate Environmental Risk Assessments & Research
The whole spectrum of marine-specific risks, such as the possibility of radiation leakage into marine food chains or thermal pollution, are sometimes not covered in Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) & research work for Floating nuclear power plants. The distinctive dangers connected to FNPPs are not adequately addressed by the current EIAs.
Here are some proposed solutions:
Develop & Establishing an FNPP-Specific Regulatory Framework
To address the challenges going to create due to Floating nuclear power plants require a specific regulatory framework under the banners of international bodies, namely IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) and UNCLOS, would create reliable worldwide FNPP operation, safety standards, and environmental security levels. Such a regulation process should provide standardized and regular safety protocols, the force of which would range through robust accident response policies with strict consequences for non- adherence, and regular checks within the marine environment where all such risks are considered.
Expand Environmental Risk Assessments (ERAs)
Environmental risk assessments for FNPPs should extend to inclusion of marine-specific hazards. These should cover rigorous evaluation of thermal pollution, probable effects of radiation in marine ecosystems & how to address it, and emergency preparedness measures for marine systems. EIAs in which the evaluations are more detailed would effectively provide an early warning over environmental issues and thus enhance response measures by minimizing damage.
Implement Advanced Safety Technologies
Establish a Clear Accountability and Compensation Mechanism
An international protocol on liability and compensation related to floating nuclear power plants would be needed. This could include FNPP-specific funds which all operating entities would provide for quick granting of compensation to affected areas in the case of an accident. Mechanismfor shared liability may also help provide incentives for safer operations and international cooperation.
Foster Regional and International Cooperation
This means that Floating nuclear power plants will have to be operated through cooperation among coastal countries. A country may come into an agreement regarding data sharing, joint environmental impact assessments, and a common safety standard. All this would mean more effective emergency responses and harmonized implementation of standards about operation of FNPPs along various regions. Regional task forces will help in disaster response work and will provide the most effective and well-coordinated efforts in case of a nuclear accident in FNPP.
Case Laws
Trail Smelter Arbitration (U.S. v. Canada, 1938–1941):
Established the principle that no state may use its territory in a manner that causes environmental harm to another state. Relevant to FNPPs if transboundary pollution occurs.
Pulp Mills Case (Argentina v. Uruguay, ICJ 2010):
The ICJ emphasized the duty to conduct prior Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for industrial activities with potential transboundary effects.
UNCLOS (Articles 194, 204–206):
Imposes obligations on states to prevent marine pollution and conduct environmental monitoring. However, enforcement in international waters remains weak.
Paris and Vienna Conventions on Nuclear Liability:
Designed for land-based nuclear facilities. Their applicability to mobile marine reactors is legally ambiguous and lacks uniform interpretation among coastal and flag states.
MOX Plant Case (Ireland v. UK, ITLOS):
Underlined that states must cooperate in preventing marine pollution from nuclear activities and ensure transparency.
Conclusion
Floating Nuclear Power Plants present a promising solution to global energy scarcity, particularly for coastal and geographically isolated regions. Their mobility, efficiency, and zero-emission operations offer substantial advantages over fossil fuel-based systems. However, these benefits are accompanied by substantial marine environmental risks and legal uncertainties.
The absence of a comprehensive, binding legal framework results in fragmented and reactive FNPP governance, rather than a preventive approach. The regulatory vacuum over jurisdiction, coupled with insufficient liability mechanisms, could severely undermine the ability of affected states to seek redress or prevent damage.
International legal instruments must evolve to recognise FNPPs as distinct operational entities requiring dedicated environmental and safety oversight. Future cooperation must prioritise clarity in jurisdictional authority, transparent environmental assessments, and enforceable obligations on liability and compensation.
With prudent governance, technological innovation, and international collaboration, FNPPs can be a cornerstone of sustainable marine energy systems without compromising the health of the world’s oceans.
FAQs
1. What is the difference between a floating nuclear power plant and a traditional one?
FNPPs are stationed on mobile maritime platforms (ships/barges), while traditional plants are land-based. FNPPs provide energy to remote or island areas without needing land infrastructure.
2. Are FNPPs safe for marine life?
They carry risks, including radiation leakage and thermal pollution, which can harm marine biodiversity. Safety depends on containment systems and regulatory compliance.
3. Who is responsible for regulating FNPPs in international waters?
Currently, this remains ambiguous. Ideally, the flag state has primary jurisdiction, but coastal states and international bodies like IAEA and UNCLOS should also have roles.
4. Do current nuclear liability conventions cover FNPPs?
No. The Paris and Vienna Conventions were not designed for floating plants, leaving a legal gap for marine nuclear incidents.
5. What environmental impact assessments are required before deployment?
Present EIAs are often inadequate. A marine-specific EIA should assess radiation, thermal, acoustic, and ecological risks comprehensively.
6. What is the biggest legal risk of FNPPs?
Jurisdictional uncertainty and lack of liability frameworks for accidents in shared or international waters are the primary legal challenges.
7. Can FNPPs be moved in emergencies?
Yes. One of the advantages of FNPPs is their mobility, which allows repositioning during natural disasters or geopolitical threats.
