Author: Aditi Gautam, Asian Law College, Noida
Linkedin Profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/aditi-gautam-069178290
INTRODUCTION
India is the world’s largest democracy, and elections are its most powerful tool for ensuring representation and accountability. Since independence in 1947, the Indian electoral system has evolved significantly. This evolution reflects not just political shifts but broader socio-economic changes, technological advances, and the deepening of democratic practices.
The Indian political landscape has witnessed a transformation from single-party dominance to coalition politics and more recently, to personality and media-driven campaigns. With over 900 million eligible voters and elections often referred to as the “festival of democracy,” India’s electoral journey provides a fascinating case study in managing diversity, scale, and democratic aspirations.
From the early years of universal suffrage to the contemporary use of electronic voting and social media campaigning, every election cycle has contributed to the maturity and challenges of Indian democracy. Understanding this journey is crucial to appreciate both the strengths and flaws of India’s democratic framework.
BACKGROUND
Pre-independence political movements:
The roots of Indian electoral politics can be traced to the colonial era when Indians began organizing politically to demand self-rule and representation. The Indian National Congress, established in 1885, played a central role in political mobilization. Though the British allowed limited elections through laws like the Indian Councils Act (1909) and the Government of India Act (1935), voting rights were highly restricted based on property, education, and tax qualifications. Nevertheless, these early experiences helped develop political awareness and electoral infrastructure, especially at the provincial level.
Post-independence foundation:
After independence in 1947, India chose a bold democratic path. The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, granted universal adult franchise to all citizens above the age of 21 (later reduced to 18). This was a revolutionary step, especially for a newly independent country with widespread illiteracy and poverty. The first general elections in 1951–52 involved over 170 million voters and were a logistical marvel. This moment laid the foundation for a participatory democracy and established the principle that every citizen’s vote carries equal value, regardless of social status or education.
Era of One-Party Dominance (1952–1967)
This period marks the early phase of India’s electoral politics, often described as the era of Congress dominance, where the Indian National Congress overwhelmingly won elections at both the central and state levels. It was a time of political consolidation, institution building, and democratic stabilization.
Congress Party’s Dominance
After independence, the Indian National Congress emerged as the undisputed political force in the country. Its central role in the freedom movement, the charisma and credibility of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, and its deep grassroots network ensured widespread support across regions.
In the first three general elections (1952, 1957, and 1962), the Congress won an absolute majority in the Lok Sabha and most state legislatures. The party promoted nation-building, planned economic development, and social reforms, which resonated with the aspirations of the newly independent population. Congress positioned itself as a broad, umbrella party that included different ideological, regional, and caste-based interests under one platform.
Weak and Fragmented Opposition
Though opposition parties existed—like the Communist Party of India (CPI), Bharatiya Jana Sangh, and Praja Socialist Party (PSP)—they were divided ideologically and regionally. Most lacked the organizational strength and national appeal needed to challenge the Congress at the ballot box. This fragmentation prevented the formation of a viable alternative, allowing Congress to maintain a dominant position without facing serious political threats.
Institution Building and Democratic Consolidation
This era was crucial for establishing democratic norms and building electoral institutions that would guide India’s democratic process for decades to come. The Election Commission of India (ECI) was established in 1950 as an autonomous constitutional body tasked with conducting free and fair elections. Under Chief Election Commissioners like Sukumar Sen, the ECI conducted large-scale elections with integrity despite enormous logistical challenges. The period saw the development of electoral rolls, ballot papers, and manual counting systems, which were monumental tasks in a country with high illiteracy and poor infrastructure. It also laid the foundations for federalism, where the states began to develop their own political identities under the umbrella of national democracy.
Rise of Multi-Party System (1967–1989)
Decline of Congress Monopoly (1967)
In the February 1967 elections, Congress’s dominance sharply declined: its Lok Sabha seats fell from 361 to 283 and it lost control of eight state governments, including major ones like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu. Coalitions such as the Samyukta Vidhayak Dal emerged, proving that Indian politics had shifted from one-party rule to a competitive, multiparty system
2. Emergency & Political Awakening (1975–1977)
On 25 June 1975, Indira Gandhi declared a national Emergency under Article 352, citing “internal disturbance.” For 21 months, civil liberties were suspended, press freedoms curtailed, and over 100,000 opponents detained. Mass sterilizations and slum demolitions further marred this period. In the subsequent 1977 election, voters decisively rejected authoritarianism. The Janata Party won 295 seats, while Congress was reduced to 154, marking the first non-Congress government and demonstrating India’s democratic resilience
3. Rise of Ideology & Caste Politics
Post-Emergency, Indian politics evolved into a battleground for ideological, regional, and caste identities. Parties rooted in Hindu nationalism, socialism, and regional caste mobilization—especially in the Hindi Belt—gained prominence .
This shift paved the way for later developments like Mandal politics, where OBC advocacy combined with Hindu nationalist platforms (the Mandal–Kamandal dynamic) to redefine electoral strategies and alignments.
Coalition Politics and Political Instability (1990s–2000s)
1. 1991 Economic Liberalization
Facing a balance-of-payments crisis, PM P.V. Narasimha Rao and FM Manmohan Singh opened India’s economy—ending the Licence Raj, slashing tariffs, deregulating industries, and encouraging FDI and privatization. This shifted the political focus toward economic performance and development.
2. BJP’s Rise via Hindu Nationalism
The BJP grew rapidly in the 1990s, propelled by the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and the Babri Masjid demolition in 1992, turning cultural-religious mobilization into political strength. Its parliamentary presence surged—becoming the single-largest party by 1996
3. Coalition Era (NDA & UPA)
No party held a clear majority post-1990, leading to unstable coalitions like the United Front (1996). The BJP formed the NDA in 1998 (governing 1998–2004), then Congress-led UPA governed from 2004–2014—marking a dual-coalition system.
Rise of Regional Parties and Identity Politics
Caste/Community Mobilization
Regional parties like SP, BSP, RJD, DMK, AIADMK, PMK, and Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi (VCK) rose by organizing around specific caste, linguistic, and community identities.
The BSP and SP, for example, mobilized Dalits and OBCs in Uttar Pradesh, while Dravidian parties emphasized Tamil pride and anti-Brahmin ideology in Tamil Nadu.
Coalition Influence
As no national party secured an outright majority post-1990s, regional parties became pivotal “kingmakers”
Parties like the DMK, TDP, JD(U), and BJD consistently leveraged their legislative strength to join national coalitions, extracting key policy concessions and ministerial positions.
Mixed Impact
Positive: Identity politics empowered marginalized groups—Dalits, OBCs, and linguistic minorities achieved greater political representation.
Negative: However, this trend also deepened social divisions, leading to fragmented electoral landscapes and coalition instability
Challenges and Criticisms
a. Criminalization of politics: Nearly 46 % of MPs in the current Lok Sabha face criminal charges, with about 31 % accused of serious offenses like murder, rape, or kidnapping. This raises serious concerns about the quality of candidate selection and weak legal oversight in elections.
b. Influence of money: Electoral spending has surged, fueled by anonymous corporate donations through electoral bonds. The Supreme Court recently struck down this scheme, deeming it unconstitutional and opaque as it masked the funding sources behind modern campaign finance.
c. Misinformation and fake news: Digital platforms—especially WhatsApp and social media—have been weaponized during elections, spreading unverified rumors and manipulated narratives, making misinformation a potent tool in influencing voter opinion.
d. Communal polarization: some political parties deliberately stoke religious and ethnic divides during campaigns, which deepens social cleavage and undermines India’s secular democratic ethos.
Conclusion
India’s electoral evolution—from colonial-era, limited franchise to today’s universal adult suffrage—is a testament to its democratic ambition, marked by major milestones like the peaceful first general election in 1951–52, single-party dominance by Congress (1952–67), the rise of multiparty and identity-based politics post-1967, the assertion of democracy following the 1975–77 Emergency, the coalition era triggered by 1990s economic liberalization and BJP’s ascendancy through Hindu nationalism, and the deepening role of regional parties—yet this journey also faces persistent challenges: the increasing criminalization of politics , the pervasive influence of opaque money (including electoral bonds struck down in February 2024 for undermining transparency and facilitating quid-pro-quo deals), rampant misinformation on social media , urban voter apathy, and rising communal polarization driven by political manipulation—all of which underscore the urgent need for robust electoral reforms, stricter campaign finance oversight, stronger institutional safeguards, and proactive civic engagement to preserve the integrity of India’s “festival of democracy.”
